Biology: Systems, Structure, and Change

This is where all the vocabulary for the rest of the year gets built: water, the four big molecule families (carbs, fats, proteins, DNA), and how enzymes work. The through-line question is always: how does a molecule's shape decide what it can and can't do?

1. Water's polarity and hydrogen bonding, arising from unequal electron sharing at oxygen+

   Given a diagram of a water molecule's electron distribution, the student explains why water forms hydrogen bonds and predicts which of two unfamiliar small molecules would also be polar.

2. Monomer identity and functional groups distinguishing the four macromolecule classes+

   The student classifies an unfamiliar biological molecule as a carbohydrate, lipid, protein, or nucleic acid by identifying its monomer and characteristic functional groups from a structural diagram.

3. Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis as the shared mechanism linking all four macromolecule classes+

   The student explains how dehydration synthesis builds a polymer from monomers and how hydrolysis reverses it, using water molecules as the shared mechanism, for a polymer type not covered in the worked examples (e.g. a nucleic acid strand when only carbohydrates and proteins were worked).

4. Levels of protein structure and how sequence determines folded 3-D shape+

   The student compares the four levels of protein structure (primary through quaternary) and explains how a change at the primary level can propagate to change the protein's final 3-D shape.

5. Macromolecule class names, monomer names, and functional roles+

   The student recalls the standard names and one-sentence functional role of the four macromolecule classes and their monomers (carbohydrate/monosaccharide, lipid/fatty acid+glycerol, protein/amino acid, nucleic acid/nucleotide).

6. Enzymes as catalysts that lower activation energy via substrate-specific shape complementarity+

   The student explains why enzymes lower activation energy without being consumed in the reaction, using the enzyme-substrate specificity model for a specific worked enzyme-substrate pair.

7. The relationship between temperature/pH-induced denaturation and loss of enzyme activity+

   Given an activity-vs-temperature (or activity-vs-pH) graph for an enzyme the student has never seen, the student predicts the shape of the curve's declining region and justifies the prediction in terms of denaturation changing the active site's shape.

8. The disproportionate functional consequence of a single amino-acid substitution on protein shape and function+

   The student critiques a claim that 'a small change in one amino acid can't matter much because the protein is still made of the same building blocks,' using evidence from sickle-cell hemoglobin or an equivalent case not previously discussed in class.

9. Domain-specific vocabulary in a biochemistry text versus everyday usage of the same words+

   The student interprets a text passage describing an unfamiliar macromolecule's function by identifying which domain-specific terms (e.g. 'denaturation,' 'hydrophobic,' 'substrate') carry technical meaning distinct from their everyday meaning.

The cell as a chemical factory with rooms — each organelle's shape explains what it does, and the membrane's structure explains what can and can't get in or out. This is also where 'homeostasis' first shows up, just not by that name yet.

1. Organelle structure-function relationships+

   Given a labeled diagram of an organelle (nucleus, mitochondrion, rough/smooth ER, Golgi, chloroplast), state the specific structural feature responsible for its named function.

2. Organelle abundance as evidence of cell specialization+

   Given a cell's primary job (e.g., secretes hormones, contracts, absorbs nutrients), predict which two organelles should be most abundant and justify the prediction from organelle function.

3. Phospholipid bilayer structure and membrane protein function+

   Construct a two-part explanation (phospholipid bilayer orientation + embedded protein function) for why the plasma membrane is selectively permeable rather than a simple wall.

4. Passive transport (diffusion, osmosis) vs. active transport+

   Classify a given transport scenario (dissolved gas crossing a membrane, glucose moving against its gradient via a pump, water moving toward a solute-dense compartment) as diffusion, osmosis, or active transport, citing the energy requirement as the deciding feature.

5. Osmosis and tonicity as a quantitative relationship+

   Calculate and predict the direction of net water movement for a cell placed in an unfamiliar solute concentration, using tonicity and units of concentration consistently.

6. The surface-area-to-volume constraint on cell size+

   Explain why a cell's surface-area-to-volume ratio decreases as it grows, and connect that ratio to a limit on the rate of material exchange the cell can sustain.

7. The cell as evidence for homeostasis+

   Given data or a scenario showing a cell maintaining an internal condition (e.g., ion concentration, water balance) different from its external environment, construct an argument for why this is evidence the cell is actively regulating rather than passively equilibrating.

8. Integration of organelle structure-function and membrane transport in a novel cell+

   Given a novel cell type with an unfamiliar micrograph-style image and a described job the cell performs, justify which organelles should be abundant, integrating structure-function reasoning with membrane transport demands the job implies.

What actually happens inside the mitochondria and chloroplasts named in Unit 2 — where a plant's sugar comes from, and how every cell burns that sugar for usable energy, always losing some as heat along the way.

1. Inputs, outputs, and cellular location of photosynthesis+

   Given a labeled diagram of a chloroplast, state the location and general inputs/outputs (light, CO2, water -> glucose, O2) of photosynthesis.

2. Inputs, outputs, and cellular location of the three respiration stages+

   Given a labeled diagram of a mitochondrion and the three respiration stages, state the general inputs/outputs and location of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.

3. The functional relationship between photosynthesis and respiration in a photosynthetic cell+

   Explain why a plant cell performs both photosynthesis and cellular respiration rather than photosynthesis alone, using gas-exchange data from light and dark conditions.

4. The energy-carrier molecules entering and leaving photosynthesis and respiration+

   Compare the energy transformations in photosynthesis and respiration, identifying which molecule carries energy INTO each pathway and which carries it OUT.

5. The complete multi-step energy/carbon pathway from light capture through cellular respiration to mechanical work+

   Trace a labeled carbon atom or joule of energy through a complete diagram from sunlight capture to ATP use in a muscle cell, naming every transformation step and identifying where energy is lost as heat.

6. The general logic that energy is transformed stepwise with heat loss at each step, applied to an untaught organism/context+

   Apply the same energy-tracing logic to an organism and pathway not used during instruction (e.g., a fish or fermenting yeast), with no diagram scaffold provided.

7. The distinction between energy transformation/conservation and energy creation, and the distinction between ATP turnover and ATP storage+

   Critique a diagram or verbal claim that states 'the cell makes energy' or 'ATP is stored in bulk,' identifying the specific inaccuracy and restating it using correct transformation language.

8. The thermodynamic principle of unavoidable heat loss at every energy conversion, generalized from cellular to ecosystem scale+

   Given a novel ecosystem energy-loss scenario (e.g., why only ~10% of energy transfers between trophic levels), infer that the same heat-loss principle taught for cellular respiration applies at the ecosystem scale.

9. Correct placement and sequencing of unit vocabulary terms on a blank pathway diagram+

   Execute the labeling of a blank respiration/photosynthesis energy-flow diagram by placing all ten unit vocabulary terms in their correct location and sequence.

How a cell copies itself reliably, and what happens when the checkpoint system that makes copying reliable breaks — which is what cancer actually is.

1. The sequence of stages in the cell cycle+

   State the three main stages of the cell cycle (interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis) and name the three sub-stages of interphase (G1, S, G2) in correct order.

2. The defining chromosome and spindle features of each named mitotic phase+

   Given the four named mitotic phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) and their defining chromosome/spindle behaviors as directly presented in the Day 4-5 worked examples, label a NEW image of each of the four phases with its correct name using the same defining features shown in instruction.

3. Chromosome number and replication state at a given cell-cycle phase+

   Given a labeled diagram of a cell at an unspecified point in the cell cycle, identify the number of chromosomes and whether they are replicated (sister chromatids present) or unreplicated.

4. The relationship between DNA replication timing and equal chromosome distribution to daughter cells+

   Explain why DNA must be fully replicated before mitosis begins, using the requirement that each daughter cell receive a complete, identical chromosome set.

5. The order of mitotic phases inferred from chromosome and spindle configuration+

   Sequence a set of unlabeled microscope images or diagrams of dividing cells into the correct order of mitotic phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) based on chromosome position and spindle behavior.

6. The functional necessity of checkpoint control beyond a simple growth/resource trigger+

   Explain why a cell cycle checkpoint is functionally necessary in addition to a size- or resource-based trigger, using the DNA-damage example as evidence against a growth-only trigger model.

7. The relationship between mitotic-index data patterns and the cell-cycle stage where a checkpoint failure occurs+

   Given a novel mitotic-index table for an unfamiliar tissue sample, determine which stage of the cell cycle is most affected by a described abnormality and predict the downstream consequence for that cell population.

8. The mechanism by which a checkpoint-targeting cancer treatment addresses checkpoint failure+

   Evaluate a claim about a specific cancer-treatment mechanism (e.g., a checkpoint-targeting drug) by constructing a short written argument that cites unit evidence about proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, or checkpoint proteins to support or refute the claim.

9. The distinction between identical DNA content across body cells and differential gene expression producing different cell types+

   Compare mitosis's role in producing genetically identical daughter cells to the AAAS-documented misconception that different body cells contain different DNA, distinguishing 'same DNA' from 'different genes expressed.'

The whole unit is built around one tension: genotype constrains phenotype, it doesn't fully determine it. It opens with identical twins looking different, then moves through meiosis, Punnett squares, incomplete dominance/codominance, and pedigree analysis.

1. Chromosome number and genetic variation outcomes of meiosis+

   Given a diagram or description of a cell entering meiosis, the student correctly identifies the number of daughter cells produced, their chromosome number relative to the parent cell, and whether they are genetically identical to each other.

2. The necessity of chromosome-number halving in gamete formation+

   The student explains why meiosis, not mitosis, is the process that must occur to produce gametes, citing chromosome number maintenance across generations as the mechanism.

3. Independent assortment vs. crossing over as sources of variation+

   The student compares independent assortment and crossing over as two distinct mechanisms of genetic variation during meiosis, identifying what each mechanism does that the other does not.

4. Monohybrid Punnett square procedure+

   Given a monohybrid cross between two known genotypes for a taught trait (e.g., pea color), the student executes a Punnett square correctly and states the resulting genotype and phenotype ratios.

5. Dihybrid Punnett square procedure+

   Given a dihybrid cross for two taught traits, the student executes the cross using the branching or grid method to predict genotype and phenotype ratios of offspring.

6. Distinguishing inheritance patterns from phenotype ratio evidence+

   Given phenotype ratio data from an unfamiliar cross (not covered in instruction), the student determines whether the data are best explained by simple dominance, incomplete dominance, or codominance, and justifies the choice by citing the specific ratio and phenotype pattern.

7. Genotype-environment interaction in phenotype expression+

   The student explains why two organisms with identical genotype for a polygenic or environmentally-influenced trait can display different phenotypes, using a specific mechanism (environmental interaction or gene regulation) rather than restating that 'genes aren't everything.'

8. Inferring inheritance pattern from pedigree evidence under ambiguity+

   Given a pedigree chart for a trait the student has not seen before, the student states which inheritance pattern(s) are consistent with the evidence shown, identifies what is not yet ruled out, and specifies what additional individual or generation would distinguish between remaining hypotheses.

9. Trait classification by phenotype distribution pattern+

   The student classifies a given trait description (e.g., human height, ABO blood type, PTC tasting) as monogenic simple-dominant, codominant, incomplete dominant, or polygenic based on the description of its phenotype distribution.

10. Generating an original inheritance model from novel ratio data+

    Given only a description of offspring phenotype ratios in an organism system never discussed in class or in the unit's resources, the student generates a plausible inheritance model (dominance relationships and number of genes involved) that accounts for the data, and states what additional cross would test that model.

Natural selection taught as a statistical process acting on variation that already exists — directly against the intuitive wrong idea that organisms change themselves on purpose when they need to.

1. The timing of heritable variation relative to a selection pressure+

   Given a case description of a population before and after an environmental change, state whether the heritable variation involved existed before or after the environmental pressure appeared.

2. The distinction between allele-frequency change and allele creation+

   Explain, using a specific dataset showing trait-frequency change over generations, why natural selection changing allele frequency is different from natural selection creating a new allele.

3. The structural criterion distinguishing homology from analogy+

   Compare a homologous structure pair (e.g., human/bat/whale forelimb) and an analogous structure pair (e.g., bat wing/insect wing), and classify which structural criterion (shared skeletal arrangement vs. shared surface function) sorts them.

4. Convergent multi-line evidence for evolutionary relationship (fossil, anatomical, molecular)+

   Given fossil-record, comparative-anatomy, and molecular-sequence evidence for a lineage the student has not previously studied, construct a written argument for common ancestry that integrates at least two of the three evidence types.

5. The discrimination between natural selection and genetic drift as explanations for allele frequency change+

   Given population data showing an allele frequency change over several generations, distinguish whether the pattern is more consistent with natural selection or with genetic drift, citing population size and consistency/direction of change as the discriminating features.

6. Criteria for a species boundary (reproductive isolation) and sufficiency of evidence for speciation claims+

   Given a description of two geographically separated populations of the same ancestral species with described reproductive behaviors, evaluate whether the evidence given is sufficient to conclude they have become separate species, and identify what additional evidence would be needed.

7. The definitions of genetic drift, bottleneck effect, and founder effect+

   Recall the definition of genetic drift and distinguish it by name from natural selection, bottleneck effect, and founder effect.

8. Argument construction ruling out a named alternative mechanism using dataset-specific evidence+

   Given the peppered-moth population dataset and a second real dataset (e.g., antibiotic-resistance growth curves) not previously analyzed together, construct a written argument identifying natural selection as the mechanism and explicitly ruling out at least one named alternative (drift, migration, non-heritable variation) using specific features of the data.

Scales Unit 3's energy-loss idea up to whole ecosystems: energy flows one direction and gets lost as heat at every step; matter (carbon, nitrogen, water) cycles and gets reused, it doesn't run out the same way.

1. The 10% energy transfer rule between trophic levels+

   Given a stated number of kilocalories of biomass at one trophic level, calculate the kilocalories available to the next trophic level using the 10% transfer rule.

2. The causal link between cellular respiration's energy loss and the ecosystem-level 10% rule+

   Explain why cellular respiration's inefficiency (taught in Unit 3) is the mechanistic cause of the 10% energy transfer rule, rather than treating the rule as an independent ecological fact.

3. Food chain vs. food web as representational models of energy flow+

   Differentiate a food chain model from a food web model in terms of what each does and does not represent about energy flow in a real ecosystem.

4. The carbon cycle as conservation of matter across biosphere, atmosphere, ocean, and geosphere reservoirs+

   Construct a diagram tracing a carbon atom through at least four reservoirs (atmosphere, living organism, ocean, geosphere/sediment) showing that the atom is neither created nor destroyed, only relocated and chemically transformed.

5. Structural similarities and differences between the carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles+

   Compare the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle to identify which structural features (a one-way atmospheric reservoir vs. a cycle requiring biological fixation) are shared and which are unique to each.

6. Energy-ceiling math as a constraint on ecosystem-change sustainability+

   Given an unfamiliar ecosystem dataset (species list, biomass at each trophic level, and a proposed change such as introducing a new predator), calculate the energy ceiling at each level and use that math to argue whether the proposed change is sustainable.

7. The generality of one-directional energy loss independent of the specific energy source+

   Explain, using a specific ecosystem example never discussed in class (e.g., a hydrothermal vent or a cave ecosystem with no sunlight), why energy still flows one direction and is lost at every transfer even when the primary energy source is not sunlight.

8. Predicted redistribution of energy flow following removal of a species from a food web+

   Predict how removing a mid-level consumer from a food web would redistribute energy flow to remaining species, and identify which prediction requires additional evidence beyond the web diagram itself.

Extends the negative-feedback idea from Unit 2 and the resource-ceiling idea from Unit 7 up to whole populations: growth curves, carrying capacity, density-dependent limits, competition, predation, and whether a community bounces back after a disturbance.

1. Exponential vs. logistic population growth curve shapes and the rate-of-change feature that distinguishes them+

   Given a population-size-over-time graph, the student classifies its growth pattern as exponential, logistic, or neither, and identifies the specific graph feature (constant vs. slowing rate of increase, presence of a plateau) that justifies the classification.

2. Carrying capacity and the mechanism by which growth rate declines as population approaches it+

   Given a dataset showing a population's growth slowing or reversing, the student determines carrying capacity from the graph and explains why growth rate approaches zero as population size approaches that value.

3. Density-dependent versus density-independent limiting factors+

   Given two limiting-factor scenarios (one clearly tied to population density, one clearly not), the student classifies each as density-dependent or density-independent and justifies the classification using the mechanism, not just the label of the factor.

4. Negative feedback structure as a scale-general mechanism, compared across cell/organism and population scale+

   The student maps population-level density-dependent regulation onto the same three-part feedback structure (deviation, response, return to set point) used to describe body-temperature homeostasis in Unit 2, explicitly stating what plays each role at the population scale.

5. Exploitative versus interference interspecific competition, inferred from population data rather than observed behavior+

   Given population data for two species sharing a resource with no observed direct contact between them, the student infers that exploitative competition is occurring and distinguishes this from interference competition using only the pattern of decline in the data.

6. Ecological resilience versus lasting community shift, evaluated from a multi-year disturbance dataset+

   Given a predator-prey population dataset with a visible oscillation and a disturbance event embedded partway through, the student evaluates whether the community shows resilience (returns toward its prior dynamic pattern) or a lasting shift, citing specific time points as evidence.

7. Causal argument for a population inflection point, defended against a genuine alternative explanation+

   Given an unfamiliar multi-year population dataset with an inflection point, the student generates an original argument identifying the best-supported limiting factor and constructs a specific, data-grounded rebuttal to at least one plausible alternative explanation the data do not fully rule out.

8. Core population-ecology vocabulary (exponential growth, logistic growth, carrying capacity, density-dependent/independent factor)+

   The student recalls the definitions of exponential growth, logistic growth, carrying capacity, density-dependent factor, and density-independent factor with correct use in a new sentence.

Applies four ideas from earlier in the year — enzyme specificity, respiration's oxygen need, cell-cycle checkpoints, and selection on existing variation — to real organ systems: digestion, circulation/respiration, and immunity.

1. Digestive organ structure and the macromolecule class each organ's enzymes target+

   Given a diagram of the digestive tract, identify each organ and state the class of macromolecule it primarily chemically digests.

2. Sequence of the heart-lung-body circulatory loop and the location of gas exchange+

   Given a red blood cell's starting chamber in the heart, state the correct next stop in the heart-lung-body loop and name whether oxygen or carbon dioxide concentration increases at that stop.

3. Enzyme-substrate specificity applied to digestive enzymes+

   Explain why a protease will not break down starch, using the enzyme-substrate specificity model from Unit 1.

4. Coupling of respiratory/circulatory structure to cellular respiration's oxygen requirement+

   Given a case description of gas exchange at altitude, explain how reduced atmospheric oxygen constrains cellular respiration, linking circulatory/respiratory structure to Unit 3's respiration mechanism.

5. Self/non-self recognition as the organizing function of the immune system+

   Compare the immune system's function to a recognition system versus an attack-only army, and justify which model better explains a described case of autoimmune disease.

6. Antibiotic resistance as natural selection on existing variation+

   Explain antibiotic resistance in a bacterial population as natural selection acting on pre-existing variation, not as bacteria developing resistance in response to need.

7. Organ-system malfunction sorted by system and level of organization+

   Classify a set of described organ malfunctions (e.g., lactose intolerance, emphysema, untreated strep, cystic fibrosis) by which body system and level of organization (organ, tissue, cell, molecule) is most directly implicated.

8. Cross-unit diagnostic reasoning applied to a novel clinical scenario+

   Given an unfamiliar clinical scenario never discussed in class, generate a justified diagnosis of which organ system and mechanism is implicated, using named vocabulary and mechanisms from at least two prior units.

9. Structural similarity between checkpoint failure and self/non-self recognition failure+

   Explain why cancer and autoimmune disease, despite affecting different systems, are both describable as failures of a discrimination mechanism (divide/don't-divide or self/non-self).

10. Cross-text comparison of clinical/scientific findings on organ-system disorders+

    Read a technical passage describing a digestive or immune disorder and compare its findings to a second source describing an overlapping but not identical case, noting agreement and contradiction.

Nervous and endocrine systems as two different-looking solutions to the same problem: detect a change, correct it. Reuses Unit 2's ion-channel/membrane vocabulary for neuron signaling and Unit 8's sensor/control-center/effector loop for physiological regulation.

1. Neuron structure (dendrite, axon, cell body, myelin sheath, axon terminal)+

   Given a labeled cross-section diagram of a neuron, identify and name the dendrite, axon, cell body, myelin sheath, and axon terminal.

2. The sequence of ion movements that constitutes an action potential+

   Given the step names of the action-potential sequence in scrambled order (resting state, depolarization, sodium channels open, repolarization, potassium channels open), place them in the correct order and state, for each step, whether sodium or potassium is the ion moving and which direction it moves relative to the cell.

3. Ion movement across the neuron membrane producing an action potential+

   Explain how the movement of sodium and potassium ions across the neuron's membrane, through the same type of channel proteins studied in Unit 2's membrane transport, produces an action potential.

4. Electrical-to-chemical signal conversion at the synapse+

   Given a diagram of a synapse mid-transmission, distinguish the segment of the signal that is electrical from the segment that is chemical and identify the point of conversion.

5. Correspondence between the sensor/control-center/effector labels and the specific textual description of each role+

   Given a completed, fully-labeled example feedback loop diagram (e.g., the temperature-regulation worked example) and its written scenario side by side, identify which drawn box corresponds to which sentence in the scenario text that describes the sensor, control center, and effector.

6. Structural and functional differences between nervous and endocrine signaling+

   Compare the nervous and endocrine systems on speed, duration, and reach of response, and justify which system would handle a given novel physiological demand.

7. Sensor-control center-effector structure of a negative feedback loop+

   Given a description of a novel physiological scenario (e.g., dehydration, fever), construct a negative feedback loop diagram labeling the sensor, control center, and effector using the same three-part structure introduced in Unit 8 for population regulation.

8. Fault localization within a novel negative feedback loop+

   Given an unfamiliar physiological malfunction scenario not used in instruction, diagnose which single component of the feedback loop (sensor, control center, or effector) is malfunctioning and justify the diagnosis by pointing to specific textual evidence.

9. Metabolic (ATP) demand of nerve and muscle tissue+

   Explain why nerve and muscle tissue require unusually high, continuous rates of cellular respiration, connecting ATP demand to the electrical and mechanical work these tissues perform.

10. The relationship between apparent output stability and active regulatory cost in a feedback system+

    Given a completely novel, structurally unfamiliar physiological scenario describing a system that maintains a stable output despite an ongoing stressor (e.g., a scenario invented for the task, not modeled on any taught case), generate an argument for why the stable output does not mean the system is inactive, using evidence from the scenario about component-level effort or cost.

11. Classification of coordination responses as nervous vs. endocrine based on structural features+

    Given two written scenarios (one nervous-system-mediated, one endocrine-mediated) describing responses to the same environmental change, classify which coordination system explains each response and cite the specific structural feature (myelinated axon vs. hormone traveling in blood) that justifies the classification.

No new biology here — this is where your child picks one real, unfamiliar biological case and argues it using the four big frames built all year: structure-function, energy transformation, variation/selection, and feedback/homeostasis. It ends with a written argument and an oral defense where you ask unscripted follow-up questions.

1. The four explanatory frames as applied in a worked example case+

   Given a short case description, state which of the four explanatory frames (structure-function, energy transformation, variation/selection, feedback/homeostasis) was used to explain a worked example the student has already seen.

2. The four explanatory frames applied to novel, confusable cases+

   Sort eight novel, unfamiliar case descriptions into the four explanatory frames, including at least two cases each deliberately written to be plausible under two different frames.

3. The distinguishing mechanism features between two competing explanatory frames for one case+

   For a case correctly sorted into one frame, explain why a second, named frame does not account for the mechanism as well, citing a specific feature of the case that distinguishes them.

4. An unresolved real-world biological case and its connection to specific prior-unit content+

   Identify a real, ongoing biological case (disease outbreak, conservation problem, or evolving-resistance case) not covered in the course, and state which prior unit's content most directly supplies background knowledge for it.

5. A written evidence-based biological argument with a ruled-out alternative+

   Construct a written scientific argument for the chosen case that states a claim, cites quantitative evidence (a dataset, graph, or model), names at least one specific alternative explanation, and explains why the evidence favors the claim over that alternative.

6. Integration of a previously-uncited prior unit's content into a live defense of a biological argument+

   During oral defense, respond to an unscripted follow-up question by revising or defending a claim using content drawn from a prior unit not already cited in the written draft.

7. The distinction between correlational data and causal mechanism in the chosen case's evidence+

   Distinguish, in a real dataset or graph tied to the chosen case, a correlational pattern from a stated causal mechanism, and identify what additional evidence would be needed to move from one to the other.

8. Definitions and worked examples of the four explanatory frames+

   Recall, without notes, the definitions of all four explanatory frames and one worked example case for each, as a cumulative check on year-long retention.